MRI Scans

Also called: Magnetic resonance imaging, NMR, Nuclear magnetic resonance

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses a large magnet and radio waves to look at organs and structures inside your body. Health care professionals use MRI scans to diagnose a variety of conditions, from torn ligaments to tumors. MRIs are very useful for examining the brain and spinal cord.

During the scan, you lie on a table that slides inside a tunnel-shaped machine. Doing the scan can take a long time, and you must stay still. The scan is painless. The MRI machine makes a lot of noise. The technician may offer you earplugs.

Before you get a scan, tell your doctor if you

• Are pregnant
• Have pieces of metal in your body. You might have metal in your body if you have a shrapnel or bullet injury or if you are a welder
• Have electronic devices in your body, such as a cardiac pacemaker

What are the benefits vs. risks? of CT Scan

Benefits

• CT scanning is painless, noninvasive and accurate.
• A major advantage of CT is its ability to image bone, soft tissue and blood vessels all at the same time.
• Unlike conventional x-rays, CT scanning provides very detailed images of many types of tissue as well as the lungs, bones, and blood vessels.
• CT examinations are fast and simple; in emergency cases, they can reveal internal injuries and bleeding quickly enough to help save lives.
• CT has been shown to be a cost-effective imaging tool for a wide range of clinical problems.
• CT is less sensitive to patient movement than MRI.
• CT can be performed if you have an implanted medical device of any kind, unlike MRI.
• CT imaging provides real-time imaging, making it a good tool for guiding minimally invasive procedures such as needle biopsies and needle aspirations of many areas of the body, particularly the lungs, abdomen, pelvis and bones.
• A diagnosis determined by CT scanning may eliminate the need for exploratory surgery and surgical biopsy.
• No radiation remains in a patient's body after a CT examination.
• X-rays used in CT scans usually have no side effects.

Risks

• There is always a slight chance of cancer from excessive exposure to radiation. However, the benefit of an accurate diagnosis far outweighs the risk.
• The effective radiation dose from this procedure ranges from approximately two to 10 mSv, which is about the same as the average person receives from background radiation in three to five years. See the Safety page for more information about radiation dose.
• Women should always inform their physician and x-ray or CT technologist if there is any possibility that they are pregnant. See the Safety page for more information about pregnancy and x-rays.
• CT scanning is, in general, not recommended for pregnant women unless medically necessary because of potential risk to the baby.
• Nursing mothers should wait for 24 hours after contrast material injection before resuming breast-feeding.
• The risk of serious allergic reaction to contrast materials that contain iodine is extremely rare, and radiology departments are well-equipped to deal with them.
• Because children are more sensitive to radiation, they should have a CT study only if it is essential for making a diagnosis and should not have repeated CT studies unless absolutely necessary.

source
http://www.radiologyinfo.org

How is the CAT scan performed?

The technologist begins by positioning you on the CT examination table, usually lying flat on your back or possibly on your side or on your stomach. Straps and pillows may be used to help you maintain the correct position and to hold still during the exam.

If contrast material is used, it will be swallowed, injected through an intravenous line (IV) or administered by enema, depending on the type of examination.

Next, the table will move quickly through the scanner to determine the correct starting position for the scans. Then, the table will move slowly through the machine as the actual CT scanning is performed.

You may be asked to hold your breath during the scanning. Any motion, whether breathing or body movements, can lead to artifacts on the images. This is similar to the blurring seen on a photograph taken of a moving object.

When the examination is completed, you will be asked to wait until the technologist verifies that the images are of high enough quality for accurate interpretation.

CT scanning of the body is usually completed within 30 minutes.

What is CT Scanning of the Body?

CT scanning—sometimes called CAT scanning—is a noninvasive medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions.

CT scanning combines special x-ray equipment with sophisticated computers to produce multiple images or pictures of the inside of the body. These cross-sectional images of the area being studied can then be examined on a computer monitor or printed.

CT scans of internal organs, bone, soft tissue and blood vessels provide greater clarity and reveal more details than regular x-ray exams.

Using specialized equipment and expertise to create and interpret CT scans of the body, radiologist can more easily diagnose problems such as cancers, cardiovascular disease, infectious disease, trauma and disorders....

Looking back: Top medical developments for women this decade

By Christine Cosgrove

source

http://archives.cnn.com/1999/HEALTH/women/12/27/women.millenium.one.wmd/index.html

(WebMD) -- The 1970s was a decade in which women became more aware of their bodies and how they worked. The 1980s was a decade of advocacy for diseases like breast cancer. What characterizes this last decade of the century in terms of health care for women?

"In the 1990s, we finally recognized that women's health is more than just reproductive health care, and that we need to evaluate, through a gender-specific lens, the other diseases to which women are prone," says Nancy Milliken, M.D., director of the Women's Health Center at the University of California at San Francisco.

Heart disease, for example, is the number one killer of women. But for a variety of reasons, women were virtually excluded from studies on heart disease until late in this decade. Researchers assumed that whatever they learned about heart disease in men would be just as true for women. They were wrong. Symptoms of a heart attack can be quite different for women, and the outcome can be far more serious.

The Women's Health Initiative,- a major research study of women and their health, was launched in 1991 to fill the gaps left by excluding women from so many medical studies. The study's findings on heart conditions in women will be available in 2005.

The estrogen factor

"The most interesting thing we've seen in the nineties has been some of the very basic science work that lets us begin to understand just how women are different from men," says Janet Pregler, M.D., director of the Iris Cantor UCLA Women's Health Center.

Estrogen, it seems, may play a far greater role in women's health than was previously suspected. According to Pregler, estrogen may ultimately be implicated in autoimmune disease, depression, and dementia -- all of which afflict women at a greater rate than men.

Top breakthroughs

A fuller understanding of estrogen's role in the body will have to wait until next decade, but the nineties saw its share of important breakthroughs. Pregler, Milliken, and Elizabeth Kennard, M.D., associate professor of Medicine at Ohio State University in Columbus, contributed to this list of the most important developments for women's health in the past decade:

Genetic testing was developed that can identify women who are at high risk for hereditary breast cancer. The drug tamoxifen was found to prevent breast cancer in certain high-risk women, while trials of the drug Herceptin showed it is effective at treating advanced breast cancer. Advances against breast cancer Breast cancer surgery became less invasive. More lumpectomies and fewer mastectomies were performed on women, and surgeons found a way to tell if cancer has spread by inspecting only one lymph node instead of removing many. For women who need to protect their bones from osteoporosis but cannot take estrogen, raloxifene was found to offer many of the same benefits without raising the odds for breast cancer. Two medical procedures, ultrasound and endoscopy, advanced significantly. Ultrasound became far more accurate and useful in pregnancy and diagnosis of breast and pelvic abnormalities. Endoscopy -- which involves inserting a camera and surgical instruments through several small incisions -- allows doctors to repair damage from ectopic pregnancies and remove fibroid tumors and ovarian cysts in a far less invasive procedure. A breakthrough in in vitro fertilization techniques allowed doctors to drill a tiny hole in the wall of an egg and inject a single sperm. This enables fertilization in couples where the sperm is unable to penetrate the egg. From antidepressants to the Internet The development of new antidepressants -- the SSRIs -- expanded treatment options for depression, a disease that is more prevalent in women than men. (According to the National Institute of Mental Health, depression affects twice as many women as men.) At least a dozen new ways to treat incontinence were developed in the last decade. Today a woman's options include estrogen rings, biofeedback, electrical stimulation, new drugs and new surgical techniques. Emergency room doctors, primary care physicians, obstetrician-gynecologists and ophthalmologists -- among other health professionals -- are wiser and more sensitive to domestic violence, a health problem which is more common than most people realize. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, up to 30 percent of women treated in emergency rooms have injuries or symptoms related to physical abuse. The Internet has transformed the relationship between women and their doctors. "My patients routinely come in for their visits with printouts from the Internet," says Kennard. "They have access to information they would never have been able to find 10 years ago. It's really improved women's education and information."

Index of (In)Famous Research and High Profile Cases

WARNING: some of these links lead to graphic upsetting material.

• Richard Borison, M.D., Bruce Diamond, Ph.D., and the Medical College of Georgia
• Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center
• James Holland, M.D., Paul Kornak, Stratton VA Medical Center
• Albert Kligman M.D., Dermatology Research at Holmsberg Prison
• LSD Trials
• Michael J. McGee, M.D., University of Oklahoma
• Nazi Research
• Porton Down, U.K. Ministry of Defense
• Pfizer's Clinical Trial of Trovan in Kano, Nigeria
• Ellen Roche, Johns Hopkins University
• Gage Stevens, University of Pittsburgh
• Radiation Experiments
• The Tuskegee Study
• Nicole Wan, University of Rochester
• Additional Resources for Information

source
http://www.circare.org

Medical Research

Adults who lack the capacity to consent

Our motto was developed in 1991 to ensure that such research is conducted ethically and is sensitive to the needs of the individuals involved. It is currently being updated to reflect the Mental Capacity Act 2005 which comes into force in April 2007, but remains valid in England, Wales and Northern Ireland.

The Mental Capacity Act 2005 governs decision-making on behalf of adults who lack mental capacity, both where they lose capacity at some point in their lives, and where the incapacitating condition has been present since birth. The MRC has welcomed the Act, as it has clarified and enshrined in law the statutory requirements for when adults who lack the capacity to consent are included in medical research studie

Use of personal information

When studying specific health problems, medical researchers sometimes need to use information about people drawn from surveys, medical records, scientific tests and interviews. Most of this information is confidential and inappropriate use of it could harm a person’s sense of security and autonomy, damage the doctor-patient relationship or lead to unfair discrimination.

The MRC provides guidance on how such information should be used, which the researchers we fund must follow. It reflects developments in law, changing public attitudes and medical researchers’ increasingly sophisticated information needs. The guidance also sets out procedures that must be followed by those undertaking or planning research that involves the use of patient data where consent from the individuals concerned has not or will not be obtained.

HIV/AIDS TREATMENT AND CARE

HIV/AIDS Treatment And care

June 2008 — Health experts estimate that approximately 25% of Americans infected with HIV do not know their status — a figure that has profound public health implications. In fact, evidence suggests that most new infections stem from people who are unaware of their HIV status, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).All sexually active people, particularly those who have had multiple sex partners — gay or straight— should get tested. Even people in monogamous relationships should be tested and should know their partner’s status.What is an HIV test? When HIV enters the bloodstream, it begins to attack certain white blood cells known as CD4 cells. The immune system then produces antibodies to fight off infection. When you take an HIV test, doctors are actually looking for the presence of these antibodies, which confirm that HIV infection has occurred. Why should I get tested? Early diagnosis is crucial in preventing life-threatening health conditions and combating the spread of HIV. Knowing your status will allow you to take steps to protect your health and the health of others. If you know you are HIV-positive and pregnant, you can take medications and other precautions—such as refraining from breast-feeding— to significantly reduce the risk of infecting your child.Am I at risk? Anyone can become infected with HIV, but you are at greater risk if you:Have ever shared injection drug needles and syringes or “works.”Have ever had unprotected vaginal, anal, or oral sex with multiple sex partners, anonymous partners, or men who have sex with men.Have ever been diagnosed with or treated for hepatitis, tuberculosis (TB) or a sexually transmitted disease such as syphilis.Exchanged sex for drugs or money.Received a blood transfusion or clotting factor between 1978 and 1985.Have had unprotected sex with someone who would answer yes to any of the above questions.If you are unsure of a sexual partner’s risk-taking behavior or if you or they have had many sex partners, you are at greater risk of infection.The CDC recommends that all pregnant women be screened for HIV. In the U.S., mother-to-child HIV transmission is highly preventable if the mother begins treatment before or during childbirth.Can’t I tell whether I’m infected without getting tested? No. The only way to know for sure is to be tested. Within a few weeks after infection with HIV, some people may develop temporary flu-like symptoms or persistent swollen glands, but many people feel healthy for a decade, and some for even more. Unfortunately, HIV- infected people who look and feel perfectly healthy can still transmit the virus to others. When and how can I get tested? Most people develop detectable HIV antibodies within three months of infection, the average being 20 days. In rare cases, it can take 6-12 months. For this reason, the CDC recommends testing six months after the last possible exposure, i.e, unprotected vaginal, anal, or oral sex, or sharing needles. You can be tested at your doctor’s office, local health department, hospital, and sites specifically set up to provide HIV testing. All HIV test results are confidential and can only be shared with people authorized to see your medical records. Anonymous testing sites allow you to get tested without giving your name.It is important to seek testing at a place that also provides counseling about HIV and AIDS. Counselors can answer questions about behavior that may put you at risk of contracting or transmitting HIV and suggest ways you can protect yourself and others in the future. They can also help you understand the meaning of the test results and refer you to local AIDS-related resources.The CDC provides a national database of HIV testing sites (see sidebar).What types of HIV tests are available? Several HIV antibody tests are used today. The most common are blood and oral fluid tests. Unlike most testing methods, which can take anywhere from three days to several weeks, rapid HIV testing offers results in 20 minutes to an hour. Although these tests are very accurate, all positive HIV results must be confirmed with a follow-up test before a final diagnosis of infection can be made

TESTS OF HIV/AIDS

What types of tests are available
Several HIV antibody tests are used today.
The most common are blood and oral fluid tests. Unlike most testing methods, which can take anywhere from three days to several weeks, rapid HIV testing offers results in 20 minutes to an hour. Although these tests are very accurate, all positive HIV results must be confirmed with a follow-up test before a final diagnosis of infection can be madees of HIV tests are available

HIV TREATMENT

HIV Treatment
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS or Aids) is a set of symptoms and infections resulting from the damage to the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This condition progressively reduces the effectiveness of the immune system and leaves individuals susceptible to opportunistic infections and tumors. HIV is transmitted through direct contact of a mucous membrane or the bloodstream with a bodily fluid containing HIV, such as blood, semen, vaginal fluid, preseminal fluid, and breast milk.[This transmission can involve anal, vaginal or oral sex, blood transfusion, contaminated hypodermic needles, exchange between mother and baby during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding, or other exposure to one of the above bodily fluids.AIDS is now a pandemic. In 2007, an estimated 33.2 million people lived with the disease worldwide, and it killed an estimated 2.1 million people, including 330,000 children. Over three-quarters of these deaths occurred in sub-Saharan Africa, retarding economic growth and destroying human capital. Most researchers believe that HIV originated in sub-Saharan Africa during the twentieth century.AIDS was first recognized by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Preventio in 1981 and its cause, HIV, identified by American and French scientists in the early 1980s.Although treatments for AIDS and HIV can slow the course of the disease, there is currently no vaccine or cure.

Physical Health

Physical Health

Physical fitness is good bodily health, and is the result of regular exercise, proper diet & nutrition, and proper rest for physical recovery.
Main article: Human height
A strong indicator of the health of localized population is their height, which generally increases with improved nutrition and health care. This is also influenced by the standard of living and quality of life. Genetics also plays a major role in people's height. The study of human growth, its regulators, and implications is known as Auxology.

Health Maintenance

Health Maintenance

Achieving health and remaining healthy is an active process. Effective strategies for staying healthy and improving one's health include the following elements:

Nutrition

The updated USDA food pyramid, published in 2005, is a general nutrition guide for recommended food consumption.
Nutrition is the science that studies how what people eat affects their health and performance, such as foods or food components that cause diseases or deteriorate health (such as eating too many calories, which is a major contributing factor to obesity, diabetes, and heart disease). The field of nutrition also studies foods and dietary supplements that improve performance, promote health, and cure or prevent disease, such as eating fibrous foods to reduce the risk of colon cancer, or supplementing with vitamin C to strengthen teeth and gums and to improve the immune system.
Personal health depends partially on the social structure of one’s life. The maintenance of strong social relationships is linked to good health conditions, longevity, productivity, and a positive attitude. This is due to the fact that positive social interaction as viewed by the participant increases many chemical levels in the brain which are linked to personality and intelligence traits. Essentially this means that positive reinforcement from a third party make one more socially adept, in control, and relaxed physically and mentally, all of which are proven to effect the nervous system(UHF[edit] Sports nutrition
Main article:

Sports nutrition
Sports nutrition focuses the link between dietary supplements and athletic performance. One goal of sports nutrition is to maintain glycogen levels and prevent glycogen depletion. Another is to optimize energy levels and muscle tone. An athlete's strategy for winning an event may include a schedule for the entire season of what to eat, when to eat it, and in what precise quantities (before, during, after, and between workouts and events). Participants in endurance sports such as the full-distance triathlon actually eat during their races. Sports nutrition works hand-in-hand with

Exercise

Physical exercise
A U.S. Marine emerges from the water upon completing the swimming leg of a triathlon.
Exercise is the performance of movements in order to develop or maintain physical fitness and overall health. It is often directed toward also honing athletic ability or skill. Frequent and regular physical exercise is an important component in the prevention of some of the diseases of affluence such as cancer, heart disease, cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes, obesity and back pain.
Exercises are generally grouped into three types depending on the overall effect they have on the human body:
Flexibility exercises such as stretching improve the range of motion of muscles and joints.
Aerobic exercises such as walking and running focus on increasing cardiovascular endurance and muscle density.
Anaerobic exercises such as weight training or sprinting increase muscle mass and strength.
Physical exercise is considered important for maintaining physical fitness including healthy weight; building and maintaining healthy bones, muscles, and joints; promoting physiological well-being; reducing surgical risks; and strengthening the immune system.
Proper nutrition is just as, if not more, important to health as exercise. When exercising it becomes even more important to have good diet to ensure the body has the correct ratio of macronutrients whilst providing ample micronutrients; this is to aid the body with the recovery process following strenuous exercise. When the body falls short of proper nutrition, it gets into starvation mode developed through evolution and depends onto fat content for survival. Research suggest that the production of thyroid hormones can be negatively affected by repeated bouts of dieting and calorie restriction. Proper rest and recovery is also as important to health as exercise, otherwise the body exists in a permanently injured state and will not improve or adapt adequately to the exercise.
The above two factors can be compromised by psychological compulsions (eating disorders such as exercise bulimia, anorexia, and other bulimias), misinformation, a lack of organization, or a lack of motivation. These all lead to a decreased state of health.
Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness can occur after any exercise, particularly if the body is in an unconditioned state relative to that exercise and the exercise involves repetitive eccentric contractions

Hygiene
Hygiene is the practice of keeping the body clean to prevent infection and illness, and the avoidance of contact with infectious agents. Hygiene practices include bathing, brushing and flossing teeth, washing hands especially before eating, washing food before it is eaten, cleaning food preparation utensils and surfaces before and after preparing meals, and many others. This may help prevent infection and illness. By cleaning the body, dead skin cells are washed away with the germs, reducing their chance of entering the body.

Stress management
Prolonged psychological stress may negatively impact health, such as by weakening the immune system. See negative effects of the fight-or-flight response. Stress management is the application of methods to either reduce stress or increase tolerance to stress. Certain nootropics do both. Exercising to improve physical fitness, especially cardiovascular fitness, boosts the immune system and increases stress tolerance. Relaxation techniques are physical methods used to relieve stress. Examples include , progressive relaxation, and fractional relaxatio. Psychological methods include cognitive therapy, meditation, and positive thinking which work by reducing response to stress. Improving relevant skills and abilities builds confidence, which also reduces the stress reaction to situations where those skills are applicable. Reducing uncertainty, by increasing knowledge and experience related to stress-causing situations, has the same effect. Learning to cope with problems better, such as improving problem solving and time management skills, may also reduce stressful reaction to problems. Repeatedly facing an object of one's fears may also desensitize the fight-or-flight response with respect to that stimulus -- e.g., facing bullies may reduce fear

HIV/AIDS

HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus. This is the virus that causes AIDS. HIV is different from most other viruses because it attacks the immune system. The immune system gives our bodies the ability to fight infections. HIV finds and destroys a type of white blood cell (T cells or CD4 cells) that the immune system must have to fight disease.

AIDS

AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. AIDS is the final stage of HIV infection. It can take years for a person infected with HIV, even without treatment, to reach this stage. Having AIDS means that the virus has weakened the immune system to the point at which the body has a difficult time fighting infection. When someone has one or more specific infections, certain cancers, or a very low number of T cells, he or she is considered to have AIDS. For more information

Origin of HIV

Scientists identified a type of chimpanzee in West Africa as the source of HIV infection in humans. The virus most likely jumped to humans when humans hunted these chimpanzees for meat and came into contact with their infected blood. Over several years, the virus slowly spread across Africa and later into other parts of the world. For more information view our question and answer on the origin of HIV.

Brief History of HIV in the United States

HIV was first identified in the United States in 1981 after a number of gay men started getting sick with a rare type of cancer. It took several years for scientists to develop a test for the virus, to understand how HIV was transmitted between humans, and to determine what people could do to protect themselves.
In 2008, CDC adjusted its estimate of new HIV infections because of new technology and developed by the agency. Before this time, CDC estimated there were roughly 40,000 new HIV infections each year in the United States. New results shows there were dramatic declines in the number of new HIV infections from a peak of about 130,000 in the mid 1980s to a low of roughly 50,000 in the early 1990s. Results also shows that new infections increased in the late 1990s, followed by a leveling off since 2000 at about 55,000 per year. In 2006, an estimated 56,300 individuals were infected with HIV.
AIDS cases began to fall dramatically in 1996, when new drugs became available. Today, more people than ever before are living with HIV/AIDS. CDC estimates that about 1 million people in the United States are living with HIV or AIDS. About one quarter of these people do not know that they are infected: not knowing puts them and others at risk.

How HIV Is and Is Not Transmitted

How HIV Is and Is Not Transmitted
HIV is a fragile virus. It cannot live for very long outside the body. As a result, the virus is not transmitted through day-to-day activities such as shaking hands, hugging, or a casual kiss. You cannot become infected from a toilet seat, drinking fountain, doorknob, dishes, drinking glasses, food, or pets. You also cannot get HIV from mosquitoes.HIV is primarily found in the blood, semen, or vaginal fluid of an infected person. HIV is transmitted in 3 main ways:
Having sex (anal, vaginal, or oral) with someone infected with HIV
Sharing needles and syringes with someone infected with HIV
Being exposed (fetus or infant) to HIV before or during birth or through breast feeding
For more information view our questions and answers on transmission
HIV also can be transmitted through blood infected with HIV. However, since 1985, all donated blood in the United States has been tested for HIV. Therefore, the risk for HIV infection through the transfusion of blood or blood products is extremely low. The U.S. blood supply is considered among the safest in the world. For

Risk Factors for HIV Transmission

Risk Factors for HIV Transmission
You may be at increased risk for infection if you have
injected drugs or steroids, during which equipment (such as needles, syringes, cotton, water) and blood were shared with others
had unprotected vaginal, anal, or oral sex (that is, sex without using condoms) with men who have sex with men, multiple partners, or anonymous partners
exchanged sex for drugs or money
been given a diagnosis of, or been treated for, hepatitis, tuberculosis (TB), or a sexually transmitted disease (STD) such as syphilis
received a blood transfusion or clotting factor during 1978–1985
had unprotected sex with someone who has any of the risk factors listed above

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Preventing Transmission

Your risk of getting HIV or passing it to someone else depends on several things. Do you know what they are? You might want to talk to someone who knows about HIV. You can also do the following:
Abstain from sex (do not have oral, anal, or vaginal sex) until you are in a relationship with only one person, are having sex with only each other, and each of you knows the other’s HIV status.
If both you and your partner have HIV, use condoms to prevent other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and possible infection with a different strain of HIV.
If only one of you has HIV, use a latex condom and lubricant every time you have sex.
If you have, or plan to have, more than one sex partner, consider the following:
Get tested for HIV
If you are a man who has had sex with other men, get tested at least once a year.
If you are a woman who is planning to get pregnant or who is pregnant, get tested as soon as possible, before you have your baby.
Talk about HIV and other STDs with each partner before you have sex.
Learn as much as you can about each partner’s past behavior (sex and drug use), and consider the risks to your health before you have sex.
Ask your partners if they have recently been tested for HIV; encourage those who have not been tested to do so.
Use a latex condom and lubricant every time you have sex.
If you think you may have been exposed to another STD such as gonorrhea, syphilis, or Chlamydia trachomatis infection, get treatment. These diseases can increase your risk of getting HIV.
Get vaccinated against hepatitis B virus.
Even if you think you have low risk for HIV infection, get tested whenever you have a regular medical check-up.
Do not inject illicit drugs (drugs not prescribed by your doctor). You can get HIV through needles, syringes, and other works if they are contaminated with the blood of someone who has HIV. Drugs also cloud your mind, which may result in riskier sex.
If you do inject drugs, do the following:
Use only clean needles, syringes, and other works.
Never share needles, syringes, or other works.
Be careful not to expose yourself to another person's blood.
Get tested for HIV test at least once a year.
Consider getting counseling and treatment for your drug use.
Get vaccinated against hepatitis A and B viruses.
Do not have sex when you are taking drugs or drinking alcohol because being high can make you more likely to take risks.
To protect yourself, remember these ABCs:
A=Abstinence
B=Be Faithful
C=Condoms
For more information view our questions and answers on HIV prevention.
Back to Index
Symptoms of HIV InfectionThe only way to know whether you are infected is to be tested for HIV. You cannot rely on symptoms alone because many people who are infected with HIV do not have symptoms for many years. Someone can look and feel healthy but can still be infected. In fact, one quarter of the HIV-infected persons in the United States do not know that they are infected. For more information view our question and answer on symptoms.
Back to Index
HIV TestingOnce HIV enters the body, the body starts to produce antibodies—substances the immune system creates after infection. Most HIV tests look for these antibodies rather than the virus itself. There are many different kinds of HIV tests, including rapid tests and home test kits. All HIV tests approved by the US government are very good at finding HIV. For more information view our questions and answers on testing.
Back to Index
Finding a Testing SiteMany places offer HIV testing: health departments, doctors' offices, hospitals, and sites specifically set up to provide HIV testing.
You can locate a testing site by visiting the CDC HIV testing database or by calling CDC-INFO (formerly the CDC National AIDS Hotline) at 1-800-CDC-INFO (1-800-232-4636) 24 Hours/Day. You do not have to give any personal information about yourself to use these services to find a testing site

Medicine

Medicine is the art and science of healing. It encompasses a range of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Contemporary medicine applies health science, biomedical research and medical technology to diagnose and treat injury and disease, typically through medication, surgery, or some other form of therapy. The word medicine is derived from the Latin ars medicina, meaning the art of healing. Though medical technology and clinical expertise are pivotal to contemporary medicine, successful face-to-face relief of actual suffering continues to require the application of ordinary human feeling and compassion, known in English as bedside manner.

Basic Medical sciences

Basic sciences

Anatomy is the study of the physical structure of organisms. In contrast to macroscopic or gross anatomy, cytology and histology are concerned with microscopic structures.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry taking place in living organisms, especially the structure and function of their chemical components.
Biostatistics is the application of statistics to biological fields in the broadest sense. A knowledge of biostatistics is essential in the planning, evaluation, and interpretation of medical research. It is also fundamental to epidemiology and evidence-based medicine.
Cytology is the microscopic study of individual cells.
Embryology is the study of the early developmentof organisms.
Epidemiology is the study of the demographics of disease processes, and includes, but is not limited to, the study of epidemics.
Genetics is the study of genes, and their role in biological inheritance.
Histology is the study of the structures of biological tissues by light microscopy, electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry.
Immunology is the study of the immune system, which includes the innate and adaptive immune system in humans, for example.
Medical physics is the study of the applications of physics principles in medicine.
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, including protozoa, bacteria, funi, and viruses.
Neuroscience includes those disciplines of science that are related to the study of the nervous system A main focus of neuroscience is the biology and physiology of the human brain and spina lcord.

Medical Specialties

Medical Specialties

In the broadest meaning of "medicine", there are many different specialties. However, within medical circles, there are two broad categories: "Medicine" and "Surgery." "Medicine" refers to the practice of non-operative medicine, and most subspecialties in this area require preliminary training in "Internal Medicine". "Surgery" refers to the practice of operative medicine, and most subspecialties in this area require preliminary training in "General Surgery." There are some specialties of medicine that do not fit into either of these categories, such as radiology, pathology, or anesthesia, and those are also discussed further below.

Surgery (Surgical Speciacilties)

Surgery (Surgical Speciacilties)
Surgical specialties employ operative treatment. In addition, surgeons must decide when an operation is necessary, and also treat many non-surgical issues, particularly in the surgical intensive care unit (SICU), where a variety of critical issues arise. Surgery has many subspecialties, e.g. general surgery, trauma surgery, cardiovascular surgery, neurosurgery, maxillofacial surgery, orthopedic surgery, otolaryngology, plastic surgery, oncologic surgery, vascular surgery, and pediatric surgery. In some centers, anesthesiology is part of the division of surgery (for logistical and planning purposes), although it is not a surgical discipline.
Surgical training in the U.S. requires a minimum of five years of residency after medical school. Sub-specialties of surgery often require seven or more years. In addition, fellowships can last an additional one to three years. Because post-residency fellowships can be competitive, many trainees devote two additional years to research. Thus in some cases surgical training will not finish until more than a decade after medical school. Furthermore, surgical training can be very difficult and time consuming. A surgical resident's average work week is approximately 75 hours. Some subspecialties of surgery, such as neurosurgery, require even longer hours, and utilize an extension to the 80 hour regulated work week, allowing up to 88 hours per week. Many surgical programs still exceed this work hour limit. Attempts to limit the amount of hours worked has been difficult because of the large volume of patients who require surgical care, the limited amount of resources (including a shortage of people willing to enter into surgery as a career), the need to perform long operations and still provide care to all pre- and post-operative patients, and the need to provide constant coverage in the OR, ICU, and ER.

Medical Specialities

Medical Specialities
Internal medicine
is concerned with systemic diseases of adults, i.e. those diseases that affect the body as a whole (restrictive, current meaning), or with all adult non-operative somatic medicine (traditional, inclusive meaning), thus excluding pediatrics, surgery, gynecology and obstetrics, and psychiatry. Practitioners of such specialties are referred to as physicians. There are several subdisciplines of internal medicine:
Cardiology
Critical care medicine
Endocrinology
Gastroenterolog
Hematology
Hepatology
Infectious diseases
Nephrology
Oncology
Proctology
Pulmonology
Rheumatology
Sleep disorder
Neurology
Geriatrics

Diagnostic specialties

Diagnostic specialties

Diagnostic specialties

Clinical laboratory sciences are the clinical diagnostic services which apply laboratory techniques to diagnosis and management of patients. In the United States these services are supervised by a pathologist. The personnel that work in these medical laboratorydepartments are technically trained staff who do not hold medical degrees, but who usually hold an undergraduate medical technologydegree, who actually perform the tests, assays, and procedures needed for providing the specific services. Subspecialties include Transfusion medicine, Cellular pathology, Clinical chemistry, Hematology, Clinical microbiology and Clinical immunology
Pathology as a medical specialty is the branch of medicine that deals with the study of diseases and the morphologic, physiologic changes produced by them. As a diagnostic specialty, pathology can be considered the basis of modern scientific medical knowledge and plays a large role in evidence-based medicine. Many modern molecular tests such as flow cytometry, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), immunohistochemistry, cytogenetics, gene rearrangements studies and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) fall within the territory of pathology.
Radiology is concerned with imaging of the human body, e.g. by x-rays, x-ray computed tomography, ultrasonography, and nuclear magnetic resonance tomography.
Clinical neurophysiology is concerned with testing the physiology or function of the central and peripheral aspects of the nervous system. These kinds of tests can be divided into recordings of: (1) spontaneous or continuously running electrical activity, or (2) stimulus evoked responses. Subspecialties include Electroencephalography, Electromyography, Evoked potential, Nerve conduction study and Polysomnography. Sometimes these tests are performed by techs without a medical degree, but the interpretation of these tests is done by a medical professional.

Technical analysis - analyzing the chart patterns

Technical analysis - analyzing the chart patterns
Identification of chart patterns may reveal the future market behavior basing on the assumption that the way the market forces interact does not change significantly with time and may be analyzed on the historical charts. As a complete pictorial record of all trading, chart patterns provide a framework to analyze the battle raging between bulls and bears. What is more important, chart patterns and technical analysis can help determine who is winning the battle, allowing traders to take a proper market position. It may be observed that chart patterns constitute a more complex variation of trend lines

When MRI scans are used?

nMRI scan can be used as an extremely accurate method of disease detection throughout the body. In the head, trauma to the brain can be seen as bleeding or swelling. Other abnormalities often found include brain aneurysms, stroke, tumors of the brain, as well as tumors or inflammation of the spine.

Neurosurgeons use an MRI scan not only in defining brain anatomy but in evaluating the integrity of the spinal cord after trauma. It is also used when considering problems associated with the vertebrae or intervertebral discs of the spine. An MRI scan can evaluate the structure of the heart and aorta, where it can detect aneurysms or tears.

It provides valuable information on glands and organs within the abdomen, and accurate information about the structure of the joints, soft tissues, and bones of the body. Often, surgery can be deferred or more accurately directed after knowing the results of an MRI scan.

Glioma Brain B Tumor: Senator Ted Kennedy, What Does It Mean?

Medical Author: Benjamin C Wedro, MD, FAAEM
Medical Editor: Melissa Stoppler, M.D.

When one of our political leaders becomes ill, it makes headline news. Senator Ted Kennedy suffered a seizure on Saturday, May 17, 2008 which led to a quick visit to Cape Cod Hospital and a medical helicopter flight to Massachusetts General Hospital, home base for Harvard Medical School. On May 20, 2008 doctors announced that a tumor had been identified as the cause of the seizure. Tissue samples taken at biopsy revealed that Senator Kennedy has a malignant glioma of the parietal lobe of his brain.

Seizures occur when the brain becomes irritable and abnormal electrical firings cause alterations in normal brain function. Usually, the patient becomes temporarily unresponsive and the exact location of the electrical short circuits will determine what abnormal physical findings are witnessed. If they involve the part of the brain that deals with movement, there may be rhythmic shaking or jerking. The seizure may involve just a mild absence or staring spell. It may be preceded by an aura in which the patient knows that a seizure is about to occur. There may be a post-ictal or recovery phase, in which the patient slowly returns to normal function as the brain resets itself. There are many different variants of seizures, and eventually a neurologist will get involved with the diagnosis and treatment.

Seizures are pretty common. The chance of having a seizure in your lifetime is almost 10%.

DEXA bone density scans: Will you glide into your golden years or live out a fractured fairy tale?

Bone Density: A Clue to Your Future

DEXA bone density scans: Will you glide into your golden years or live out a fractured fairy tale?

By Kathleen Doheny
WebMD Feature

Reviewed by Brunilda Nazario, MD

Health-conscious women who wouldn't dream of skipping their Pap test or mammogram appointments can be woefully ignorant about another type of vital health check -- the bone density test.

This quick and painless evaluation, often done for the first time after menopause, can help predict whether you'll sprint through your middle years and beyond, or shuffle along painfully due to thinning bones and fractures. More importantly, the test results can help your doctor decide if medication or lifestyle changes are needed now to rescue your "thinning" bones.

Predicting Bad Bones: Bone Density Tests

"Bone density tests turn out to be a good predictor of fracture risk," says Felicia Cosman, MD, clinical director of the National Osteoporosis Foundation in Washington, and a New York physician. Minimizing that risk is important, because the older you are, the more serious a fracture can be -- often resulting in lengthy hospitalization and long-term loss of your mobility.

And certain women are at higher risk of low bone mass, called osteoporosis, in which bones are likely to fracture. What increases your osteoporosis risk?

• A family history of the disease
• Having a small, thin frame
• Certain medical conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis
• Taking certain medications, such as corticosteroids
• Lifestyle factors: Alcohol use; getting little exercise; smoking; drinking cola; a diet low in calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D.

Unfortunately, many women are unsure if -- and when -- they need a bone density test, if they're aware of the test at all.

When Should You Get That First Bone Density Scan?

Some of the confusion about the test is understandable because official recommendations and advice from physicians on when to first get tested isn't in perfect agreement.

For instance, the National Osteoporosis Foundation as well as the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists recommends all women aged 65 and over , as well as women and men after age fifty who experience fractures, get a bone density test. They also suggest that younger women who have gone through menopause and have one or more risk factors (such as family history of spine fractures) get tested, too.

Despite those guidelines, many physicians say that all average, healthy women should get a bone density test when they enter menopause, says Laura Tosi, MD, director of the bone health program at Children's National Medical Center in Washington. That makes sense, she says, because bone loss tends to speed up in the years after menopause, so getting a baseline idea of where you stand as you enter menopause gives you something to compare later scans to.

And some women should get the test even earlier, Tosi says. For instance, a woman who is 40 or so and suffers a "fragility" fracture -- a bone break that occurs when you fall from a standing height (about 5.5 feet or less) -- should get a bone density test, Tosi says. That type of fracture, she reasons, doesn't occur to strong bones.

Women who have been on high-dose corticosteroid medications to treat autoimmune disease such as lupus, along with women who have thyroid disease, should consider a bone density test, too, Tosi says, because they are more likely than others to have lower bone density.

Computerized Axial Tomography(CAT)

What is a CT scan?

A computerized axial tomography scan is an x-ray procedure that combines many x-ray images with the aid of a computer to generate cross-sectional views and, if needed, three-dimensional images of the internal organs and structures of the body. Computerized axial tomography is more commonly known by its abbreviated names, CT scan or CAT scan. A CT scan is used to define normal and abnormal structures in the body and/or assist in procedures by helping to accurately guide the placement of instruments or treatments.

A large donut-shaped x-ray machine takes x-ray images at many different angles around the body. These images are processed by a computer to produce cross-sectional pictures of the body. In each of these pictures the body is seen as an x-ray "slice" of the body, which is recorded on a film. This recorded image is called a tomogram. "Computerized Axial Tomography" refers to the recorded tomogram "sections" at different levels of the body.

Imagine the body as a loaf of bread and you are looking at one end of the loaf. As you remove each slice of bread, you can see the entire surface of that slice from the crust to the center. The body is seen on CT scan slices in a similar fashion from the skin to the central part of the body being examined. When these levels are further "added" together, a three-dimensional picture of an organ or abnormal body structure can be obtainedby this.

Cancer Causes

Risk factors

Doctors often cannot explain why one person develops cancer and another does not. But research shows that certain risk factors increase the chance that a person will develop cancer. These are the most common risk factors for cancer:

• Growing older



• Tobacco



• Sunlight



• Ionizing radiation



• Certain chemicals and other substances



• Some viruses and bacteria



• Certain hormones



• Family history of cancer



• Alcohol



• Poor diet, lack of physical activity, or being overweight

Many of these risk factors can be avoided. Others, such as family history, cannot be avoided. People can help protect themselves by staying away from known risk factors whenever possible.

If you think you may be at risk for cancer, you should discuss this concern with your doctor. You may want to ask about reducing your risk and about a schedule for checkups.

Over time, several factors may act together to cause normal cells to become cancerous. When thinking about your risk of getting cancer, these are some things to keep in mind:

• Not everything causes cancer.



• Cancer is not caused by an injury, such as a bump or bruise.



• Cancer is not contagious. Although being infected with certain viruses or bacteria may increase the risk of some types of cancer, no one can "catch" cancer from another person.



• Having one or more risk factors does not mean that you will get cancer. Most people who have risk factors never develop cancer.



• Some people are more sensitive than others to the known risk factors.

The sections below have more detailed information about the most common risk factors for cancer. You also may want to read the NCI booklet Cancer and the Environment.

Are Candels making sick???

WEDNESDAY, Aug. 19 (HealthDay News) -- Paraffin wax candles, used mainly for romantic ambiance, fragrance and light, may also contribute to air pollution inside your home.

The candles, which are made from petroleum, are a source of known human carcinogens and indoor pollution, researchers said in a study to be presented Wednesday at the American Chemical Society's national meeting in Washington, D.he study, R. Massoudi and Amid Hamidi found that candles made from beeswax or soy, although more expensive, apparently are safer because they do not release potentially harmful pollutants.

"An occasional paraffin candle and its emissions will not likely affect you," Hamidi said in a news release. "But lighting many paraffin candles every day for years or lighting them frequently in an unventilated bathroom around a tub, for example, may cause problems."

Ventilation can help reduce the level of pollutants in closed rooms, the researchers said.

Besides the more serious risks, Hamidi also said that some people who believe they have an indoor allergy or respiratory irritation may actually be reacting to pollutants from burning candles.

DNA sequence?

A DNA sequence or genetic sequence is a succession of letters representing the primary structure of a real or hypothetical DNA molecule or strand, with the capacity to carryinformation as described by the central dogma of molecular biology.

The possible letters are A, C, G, and T, representing the four nucleotide bases of a DNA strand — adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine — covalently linked to a phosphodiesterbackbone. In the typical case, the sequences are printed abutting one another without gaps, as in the sequence AAAGTCTGAC, read left to right in the 5' to 3' direction. Short sequences of nucleotides are referred to as oligonucleotides and are used in a range of laboratory applications in molecular biology. With regard to biological function, a DNA sequence may be considered sense or antisense, and either coding or noncoding. DNA sequences can also contain "junk DNA."

Sequences can be derived from the biological raw material through a process called DNA sequencing.

Mitochondrion

mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.^[1] These organelles range from 1–10 micrometers (μm) in size. Mitochondria are sometimes described as "cellular power plants" because they generate most of the cell's supply ofadenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy. ^[2] In addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are involved in a range of other processes, such as signaling, cellular differentiation, cell death, as well as the control of the cell cycle and cell growth.^[3] Mitochondria have been implicated in several human diseases, including mitochondrial disorders^[4] and cardiac dysfunction,^[5] and may play a role in the aging process. The word mitochondrion comes from the Greek μίτος or mitos, thread + χονδρίον orkhondrion, granule. Several characteristics make mitochondria unique. The number of mitochondria in a cell varies widely by organism and tissue type. Many cells have only a single mitochondrion, whereas others can contain several thousand mitochondria.^[6][7] The organelle is composed of compartments that carry out specialized functions. These compartments or regions include the outer membrane, the intermembrane space, the inner membrane, and the cristae and matrix. Mitochondrial proteins vary depending on the tissues and species. In human, 615 distinct types of proteins were identified from cardiac mitochondria;^[8] whereas in murinae (rats), 940 proteins encoded by distinct genes were reported.^[9] The mitochondrial proteome is thought to be dynamically regulated.^[10] Although most of a cell's DNA is contained in the cell nucleus, the mitochondrion has its own independent genome. Further, its DNA shows substantial similarity to bacterial genomes

Technique of Molecular Biology

Since the late 1950s and early 1960s, molecular biologists have learned to characterize, isolate, and manipulate the molecular components of cells and organisms. These components include DNA, the repository of genetic information; RNA, a close relative of DNA whose functions range from serving as a temporary working copy of DNA to actual structural and enzymatic functions as well as a functional and structural part of the translational apparatus; and proteins, the major structural and enzymatic type of molecule in cells.

For more extensive list on protein methods, see protein methods.

For more extensive list on nucleic acid methods, see nucleic acid methods.,,

Molecular biology?

Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. The field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularlygenetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis and learning how these interactions are regulated..

Writing in Nature, William Astbury described molecular biology as:

"[...]not so much a technique as an approach, an approach from the viewpoint of the so-called basic sciences with the leading idea of searching below the large-scale manifestations of classical biology for the corresponding molecular plan. It is concerned particularly with the forms of biological molecules and[...]is predominantly three-dimensional and structural—which does not mean, however, that it is merely a refinement of morphology. It must at the same time inquire into genesis and function."

microRNAs aid programming

microRNAs specific to mouse embryonic stem cells can substitute for the reprogramming factor cMyc in the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells. The development of reprogramming methods that do not rely on transgenes may facilitate clinical translation of this technology...............

Applications of Biotechnology

Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g.biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses.

For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons.

A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example:

• Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale."^[7] Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics,structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.
• Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.
• Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environmental conditions or in the presence (or absence) of certain agricultural chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby eliminating the need for external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.
• Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genomic manipulation.
• White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.
• The investments and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies form what has been described as the bioeconomy

Today's Life Sciences

The biological sciences have experienced enormous growth over the last century,

fueled by a stream of discoveries — such as the principles of genetics, the structure of

DNA, and the discovery of gene splicing technologies. These have opened new fields of

inquiry and provided the basis for myriad applications in industry, agriculture, and

medicine. Among the technological breakthroughs in the life sciences, genetic

engineering plays a particularly significant role.

Genetic engineering is a technique that permits the artificial modification and

transfer of the genetic material from one organism to another and from one species to

another. This technology is used throughout the world to alter the protein produced by a

gene and to design organisms with desirable traits for applications ranging from basic

research and development activities to pharmaceutical and industrial uses. During the

last 30 years, these recombinant techniques have spawned a vibrant biotechnology

industry focused largely on the development of new pharmaceuticals to fight disease.6

By 2000 the annual investment in the biotechnology industry peaked at nearly $29

billion, while employment in the biotechnology industry reached 191,000 by 2001.7

In response to the opportunities presented by these developments the resources

devoted to the life sciences have increased dramatically, making further discoveries

possible. The government has funded biological research generously through the

National Institutes of Health and National Science Foundation budgets, with few strings

attached; private foundations and the pharmaceutical industry have also made major

contributions. The number of PhDs awarded each year in the biological and agricultural

sciences has increased steadily; 6,526 were awarded in 2001.8

This ever-expanding research activity has resulted in numerous new

biopharmaceutical products that are transforming medicine. Examples include human

recombinant insulin for the treatment of diabetes, a vaccine against hepatitis B, and

medicines for diabetes, cancer therapy, arthritis, multiple sclerosis, cystic fibrosis, heart

attacks, hemophilia, and sepsis. As knowledge of the human genome increases, it may

even become possible to tailor pharmaceutical products not only to specific diseases but

also to specific individuals. Throughout this process, the time between new discoveries

and their applications has grown ever shorter. One example is the very short time it took

the scientific community to identify the coronavirus as the causal agent of the newly

emerging human disease, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).

Biotechnology research is now a truly global enterprise. While industrialized

countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Israel, and Japan

may be the first to develop advanced research and technologies, other countries have a skill base that will enable broad domestic utilization of biological technologies.9 For

example: